Why 20th Century Northern Italy?
Russolo, Carra, Marinetti, Boccioni and Severini
INTRODUCTION
This paper’s focus will be on the Italian Futurist painters in the years between the publication of “The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism” (1) in 1909 and Italy’s declaration of war on Austro-Hungary in 1915.
The leading painters who signed this manifesto included:
Giacomo Balla (1871 – 1958), painter, designer of furniture and ‘anti-neutral’ clothing.
Umberto Boccioni (1882 – 1916) painter, sculptor & pupil of Balla. He published ‘Pittura e scultura futuriste (dinamismo plastic)’ (1914) which set out the aesthetics of the group:
“While the impressionists make a table to give one particular moment and subordinate the life of the table to its resemblance to this moment, we synthesize every moment (time, place, form, colour-tone) and thus build the table.”(2)
Carlo Carra (1881 – 1966) painter & art theorist.
Luigi Russolo (1885 – 1947) perhaps the most revolutionary of the group who combined his painting with his interest in music. He became the first ‘noise artist’ and theorist of electronic music (3).
Gino Severini (1883 – 1966) painter who also worked in mosaic and fresco. He was also a pupil of Balla.
WHAT IS FUTURISM?
“…put simply Futurism means hate of the past, our aim is to energetically combat and destroy the culture of the past…” (4)
In 1910, a group of Italian painters signed their own manifesto, “Futurist Painting: Technical Manifesto”. This document was inspired by Marinetti’s Manifesto of the previous year and referenced their earlier public declaration of March that year in the Chiarella Theatre, Turin.
They rejected:
- The romantic notion of the artistic genius.
- The concept of autonomous art. They believed in the immersion of art in everyday life – leading to a rejection of cubism as overly intellectual and static (see section 4).
- The past artistic endeavours particularly of Italy which the viewed as a mausoleum being held back by part glories. They believed that only Futurism could provide the type of government that could carry out the cultural housekeeping they believed that society needed i.e. sweep away the past.
They embraced:
- Integration of art in society – illustrated by the portrayal of the changes in popular culture which is the subject of Severini’s ‘Blue Dancer’ (Fig 2) which captures the movement and energy of the dance.
Fig 2 (1910-11)
- A pervasive interest in the city, agitation and dynamic forms as subjects for their art. Unlike most art movements, instead of turning their backs on the machine age they passionately embraced it.
- Violent change; similar in many ways to the Hegel dialectic of thesis, antithesis clashing to produce synthesis and thereby moving forward, prevalent across Europe at this time.
- The Italian Divisionist movement (see section 4).
- Art’s shock value.
- Simultaneity; objects are not static but are constantly moving and it is essential to depict this movement. They utilised Divisionist techniques as well as developments in photography and cinematography. Fig 4 illustrates the technique of working with memories, emotions, and associations.
“on account of the persistency of an image upon the retina, moving objects constantly multiplying themselves; their forms change like rapid movements are triangular”. (5)
- The conception of reality as emotional, dynamic i.e. ‘universal dynamism’. Artists had to be aware that objects/individuals in life did not exist in isolation to their surroundings; objects are penetrated by their surroundings. Objects must be viewed in relation to its environment. This concept is illustrated in Fig 3, a female figure gazes down at an unfolding scene while simultaneous it is coming from the top of her head, she is reflecting on what she is seeing i.e. the painting is representing perceptions.
Fig 3 ‘Simultaneous Visions’, Boccioni, 1911
SOCIO-POLITICAL CONTEXT
“In the eyes of other countries, Italy is still a land of the dead, a vast Pompeii, whit with sepulchres. But Italy is being reborn. Its political resurgence will be followed by a cultural resurgence.”(6)
Early 20th Century Italy was a product of:
- The unification in 1861 with Rome becoming the capital in 1871. To develop a sense of national identity the vogue for art reflecting great figures and events of the past was encouraged e.g. Roman grandeur, Dante’s poetry, the imperial glory of Venice, the artistic dominance of Florence etc.
- 40 – 50 years of crisis; a country torn between tradition and change or in the eyes of the Futurists tradition and modernity. Anarchy & violent protest were met with government oppression. As illustrated by Carra’s ‘Funeral of the Anarchist Galli’ (Fig 4). Angelo Galli was killed during the general strike in Milan, 1904. Carra attended the funeral and made his preparatory sketches on his return home. He described how “sticks and lances clashed’ i.e. the workers with the police. The painting is typical of the Futurist style – countless figures are dynamically interlocked in violent, unified action. It was painted from memory seven years after the event and it is clear that Carra is representing not just the visual impressions but also the emotional impact.
Fig 4 (1911)
- The relative wealth of the industrial, literate North and the extreme poverty and illiteracy of the South. Rapid industrialisation at a faster rate than the rest of Europe (7) only served to widen this gulf further.
- The alienation of the ruling and intellectual classes as they saw their traditional role and social standing eroded in light of the rise of the working classes and urbanisation. This is celebrated in Boccioni’s ‘City Rises’ (Fig 5) and demonstrates that these events/developments are not merely the backdrop but exerted direct influence on the Futurists. It captures the dynamism of a city waking with work and traffic getting underway. The swirling vortices created by short brushstrokes in vibrant colours combine to project vigour and energy. The objects flow into each other forming a continuum of motion. Boccioni is using these motifs as a metaphor of the city entering the industrial era.
Fig 5 (1910-11)
As the quote at the beginning of this section highlights, the Futurists rejected the need to celebrate the past which they believed was holding Italy back and sought to develop a new symbolic language (8). In Balla’s ‘Street Light’ (Fig 6) the ‘Segantini Stitch’ (small strokes of pure colour) is used to great effect. The imagery is far from suitable, the light of technology outshining nature in the guise of the moon i.e. Italy moving into the light of a modernity.
Fig 6 (1910-11)
THE DUAL AESTHETIC INFLUENCES
This Futurist’s manifesto predated the development of the artistic manifestation of their beliefs and vision. The two predominant aesthetic influences on Futurist painting were:
(i) Divisionism
“We conclude that painting cannot exist today without Divisionism. This is no process that can be learned and applied at will. Divisionism for the modern painter, must be an innate complementariness which we declare to be essential and necessary” (9)
Despite Marinetti’s repudiation of all previous forms of art, the Futurist painters declared an exception – Divisionism. This was a particularly Italian style of pointillism:
“….. an avant-garde painting technique practised ….in and around Milan during the 19th Century. The depiction of light was fundamental……the Divisionists aimed to make art an instrument of social change…..”(10)
Perhaps the most obvious link between Futurism and Divisionism is Balla (many see him as the pre-Futurist) who taught both Boccioni and Severini. Although, he is chiefly known for his contribution to Futurism, when he signed the 1910 Manifesto he was already a mature and established artist. He shared the avant-garde belief that an artist’s education should not be exclusively academic especially the Old Masters, this fervently adopted by the Futurists.
His Divisionist techniques, especially his scientific approach to the handling of colour, are evident in ‘Girl Crossing a Balcony’ (Fig 7). He was inspired by the ‘photo-dynamism’ of the Bragaglia brothers (Fig 8) – using multiple forms as a way of conveying the impression of movement. All the objects within the painting, the girl, the balustrade & the doorframe, melt into a vibrantly coloured plane – diffusing into patterns of colour and thereby negating spatial perspective i.e. deconstructing and reconstructing a whole sensation.
Fig 8
Fig 7 (1912)
Although Balla was a huge influence on his Futurist colleagues it was the way that the Divisionist techniques could be used to convey motion, even speed or velocity that was one of the key reasons why it was so favoured. For example, Balla’s ‘Dynamism of a do on a leash’ (Fig 9), the technique conveys the way a little dog’s legs blur when trying to keep up with their owner.
Fig 9 (1912)
Another key factor of Divisionism which attracted the Futurist painters is the aforementioned scientific or modern approach to colour theory. In essence, colour theory involved the use of contrasting colours, opposite to each other on the colour wheel. These opposites provide emphasis, depth, solidity and mass as well as a unity across the canvas by echoing colours from other parts of the painting.
(ii) Cubism
An avant-garde movement centred in Paris, pioneered by Picasso and Braque. The theory was to use all images that formed movement and superimpose them into single frame i.e. the eye to sees all images at once which would form a linear film. This non-objective painting and sculptural method reduced/fragmented natural forms into abstract, often geometric structures.
The Futurists had first hand knowledge of Cubism; Severini lived in Paris and Boccioni, Carra & Russolo visited in 1911. The impact of these visits were immediately apparent e.g. in dramatic difference between Boccioni’s first & second versions of ‘The Farewells’. The first version, painted before the visit, (Fig 10) has 3 or 4 couples saying ‘goodbye’ at a railway station. The figures are shrouded in steam which represents their emotions. The painting is classic Divisionist style, uniform, fluid, conveying emotion and movement.
Fig 10 (1911)
The second version was painted after the visit (Fig 11) & is in the Cubist style. There is a locomotive, its number clearly visible, surrounded by couples, angular, in green. This painting has greater articulation, the different perspectives are clear although the dynamism apparent it is less emotional and somewhat static compared to the original.
Fig 11 (1911)
Here lies one of the two main problems that the Futurists had with Cubism. It lacked the emotion and velocity which they sought to achieve. Movement through simultaneous vision captured the moment but not the movement through time and did not necessarily capture the emotional impact. The second problem is that the Futurists regarded Cubism as intellectual which kept them apart from society. This is in direct contradiction to the immersion that Italians sought to achieve. The Futurists did ‘mimic’ some of the Cubist elements for descriptive purposes combining these with the Divisionist’s use of brushstrokes and colour theory to achieve an engaging depiction of velocity and emotion.
THE CATALYST F.T. MARINETTI – the Politician & Publicist
Carra Portrait of the Poet Marinetti, 1910
“We stand on the last promontory of the centuries!….Why should we look, back, when what we want is to break down the mysterious doors of the Impossible? Time and Space died yesterday. We already live the absolute, because we have created eternal, omnipresent speed”(11)
Although the socio-political landscape and the aesthetic influences were in place, the Futurism needed a catalysis to galvanise the outbreak of creativity and manifesto writing which propelled the movement into being. Marinetti had the wealth, the education, the international outlook and the ego to enable him to apply all his energy and determination to promoting his ideology.
The 1909 Manifesto describes Marinetti’s ’road to Damascus’ moment when he survived a road accident. He emerged from the ditch, quite literally, a changed man seeing the potential of technology and speed over nature and man.
The Manifesto constantly refers to the themes of movement, technology and violence the language used is emotive, descriptive, engaging but not intellectual or remote:
- ‘gorges of the sea’; ‘swept us out of ourselves’; ‘drove us’ ‘raced, hurling’
- ‘hellish fires of great ships’, ‘roar of automobiles’, ‘trembling aeroplanes’
- ‘army of hostile stars’, ‘red sword slashing’, ‘hurls the lance’
Marinetti’s original manifesto was published in Le Figaro, this alone ensured the publicity maximised and the message was spread beyond political &/or art circles. This demonstrates his skills as a publicist which were essential to Futurism. He sought to increase engagement, provoke dialogue by increasing notoriety and thereby attaining further coverage. All of this is a very modern approach to media management. His skills are similar to a modern day political campaign manager, and given his political ambitions this is not so surprising.
He reached a mass audience through audacity and inventiveness, promoting manifestoes on numerous subjects in addition to politics and painting, there were manifestoes on prose, lust, cinema, sculpture, noise, theatre and weights & measures. These were published in a number of languages and distributed though newspapers, wall posters, and leaflets.
They were distributed using a variety of methods including stage managed events or ‘happenings’, for example:
- Tracts ‘Against Venice’ were thrown into the Piazza San Marco
- Thrown from Taxis in Berlin
- Events in theatres usually with Marinetti acting as the master of ceremonies where his collaborators deliberately provoked the audience leading to violence, arrest resulting in more publicity.
All of this activity ensured that Futurism’s reach and influences stretched far beyond the artistic circles of the Italian industrial North.
FUTURISM’S LEGACY
Although, many have dismissed Futurism as ‘Cubist wannabes’, ‘proto-fascists’, dilettantes and/or bad artists; the movement continues to exert a great deal of influence on many forms of artistic endeavour including theatre, graphic design, art, cinema etc. Boccioni’s ‘Unique Forms of Continuity in Space’ (Fig 12) is the ultimate statement of dynamic power and the technological man. Given Futurism’s internationalism and chauvinism it is somewhat appropriate that it was chosen by the Berlusconi Government to adorn the Italian 20 Eurocent coin (Fig 13).
Fig 12 (1912)
Fig 13 (2002)
This dynamic mechanical man continues to influence movie aesthetics, where these ‘men’ are initially view with suspicion but ultimately prove to be more effective in the fight against evil e.g. Figs 14 & 15.
Fig 14 “Terminator” 1984
Fig 15 “Robocop” 1987
Sant’Elia was the author of the ‘Manifesto of Futurist Architecture’. His monumental buildings have clean lines and devoid of any architectural decoration (Fig 16). This has continued to influence works of science fiction including graphic novels, cinema etc. – e.g. Katsuhiro Otomo’s ‘Akira’ (Fig 17) & Ridley Scott’s iconic ‘Blade Runner’ (Fig 18).
Fig 16 (1914)
Fig 17 (1982)
Fig 18 – 1982
END NOTES
(1) Le Figaro, Paris, 20 February.
(2) Quoted on p303 of ‘Gestalts and Pictorial Worlds’, Jan Koenderink, Vol. 33, No.3/4, (2011) pp289-324 (last accessed 25 August 2014).
(3) An example of his “Veglio Di Una Città“, recorded in 1913.
(4) “The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism”, Martinetti, 1909
(5) See Footnote 2
(6) Manifesto of Futurist Painters, 11 February 1910.
(7) Industrial output increased by 6.7% p.a. from 1896 to 1908 and the per capita income in 1910 – 14 was 28.8% higher than in 1896 – 1900 (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1995).
(8) Quite literally in the case of F T Marinetti’s “Destruction of Syntax – Imagination without Strings – Words-in-Freedom”, 1913.
(9) See footnote 2
(10) “Radical Light: Italian Divisionist Painters 1891 – 1910”, exhibition leaflet, National Gallery, London (18 June – 7 September 2008)
(11) See footnote 2
Author’s Note – This is the third assignment which lead me from Pointillism, via Divisionism to Futurism.
Tags: Art History, Balla, Birkbeck, Boccioni, Carra, Cubism, futurist, History of Art, Italian Divisionist, Italy, Marinetti, Russolo, Segantini